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<title>Project Camel</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Project Camel</span></span>

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<p><b>Project Camel</b> encompassed the work performed by the <a href="California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) in support of the <a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> during <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. These activities included the development of <a href="Detonators" class="mw-redirect" title="Detonators">detonators</a> and other equipment, testing of bomb shapes dropped from <a href="Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">Boeing B-29 Superfortress</a> <a href="Bomber" title="Bomber">bombers</a>, and the Salt Wells Pilot Plant, where explosive components of nuclear weapons were manufactured.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<p>In the early 1930s, an emergency landing field was built by the <a href="Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> in the <a href="Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave Desert</a> near the small town of <a href="Inyokern%2C_California" title="Inyokern, California">Inyokern, California</a>. Opened in 1935, it was acquired by the <a href="United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> (USAAF) in 1942, and became part of the <a href="Edwards_Air_Force_Base" title="Edwards Air Force Base">Muroc Bombing and Gunnery Range</a>. In 1943, the <a href="Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> (OSRD) contracted with the <a href="California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) for the testing and evaluation of rockets for the Navy. A suitable test area was required for this near <a href="Pasadena%2C_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a>, so the area was transferred from the Army to the Navy in October 1943, and commissioned as the <a href="Naval_Air_Weapons_Station_China_Lake" title="Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake">Naval Ordnance Test Station</a> (NOTS) in December 1943. Workshops, laboratories and facilities were constructed for over 600 men. During 1944, NOTS worked on the development and testing of the <a href="3.5-Inch_Forward_Firing_Aircraft_Rocket" title="3.5-Inch Forward Firing Aircraft Rocket">3.5-inch</a>, <a href="5-Inch_Forward_Firing_Aircraft_Rocket" title="5-Inch Forward Firing Aircraft Rocket">5-inch</a>, <a href="High_Velocity_Aircraft_Rocket" title="High Velocity Aircraft Rocket">HVAR</a> and <a href="Tiny_Tim_(rocket)" title="Tiny Tim (rocket)">11.75-inch (Tiny Tim)</a> rockets.<sup id="cite_ref-China_Lake_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China_Lake-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>By late 1944, rocket development and testing work began to taper off, and production models started to reach the Navy and USAAF in quantity. The director of the OSRD, <a href="Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> saw an opportunity to use some of the expertise at Caltech on another secret wartime project he was involved with, the <a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Bush arranged for <a href="Charles_C._Lauritsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles C. Lauritsen">Charles C. Lauritsen</a>, the head of the rocket team at Caltech, to visit the <a href="Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>, and meet with the project director, <a href="Major_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Major General (United States)">Major General</a> <a href="Leslie_R._Groves%2C_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr.">Leslie R. Groves, Jr.</a>, the laboratory director, <a href="Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, and senior scientists at the Los Alamos laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oppenheimer and Lauritsen knew each other well, as Oppenheimer had worked at Caltech before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to its scientists, Caltech also possessed an experienced procurement team, headed by <a href="Trevor_Gardner" title="Trevor Gardner">Trevor Gardner</a>. This group worked closely with its counterpart at Los Alamos, which was headed by <a href="Lieutenant_Colonel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel">Lieutenant Colonel</a> Robert W. Lockridge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Codename">Codename</h2></div>

<p>All the work done at NOTS on behalf of the Manhattan Project came under the codename Project "Camel". The name is said to have come from a remark by a Los Alamos scientist that once a camel (meaning Caltech) gets its nose under a tent flap it is hard to dislodge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drop_testing">Drop testing</h3></div>

<p>The Manhattan Project conducted an extensive series of drop tests to evaluate various bomb shapes. These were initially conducted with scale models of the bomb dropped from a <a href="Grumman_TBF_Avenger" title="Grumman TBF Avenger">Grumman TBF Avenger</a> at the US Navy test range at <a href="Dahlgren%2C_Virginia" title="Dahlgren, Virginia">Dahlgren, Virginia</a> starting in August 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell200542_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell200542-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new airfield was constructed at NOTS, using Manhattan Project funding, with three runways, 10,000 feet (3,000 m), 7,700 feet (2,300 m) and 9,000 feet (2,700 m) long, and 200 feet (61 m) wide to accommodate the <a href="Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">Boeing B-29 Superfortress</a>. Fuel storage was provided with a capacity of 200,000 US gallons (760,000 L) of gasoline and 20,000 US gallons (76,000 L) of oil. It was opened on 1 June 1945, and named Armitage Field after Navy <a href="Lieutenant_(navy)" title="Lieutenant (navy)">Lieutenant</a> John Armitage, who was killed while testing a Tiny Tim rocket at NOTS in August 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-China_Lake_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China_Lake-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978175–176_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978175–176-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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Three B-29s were based at Armitage for drop testing.<sup id="cite_ref-China_Lake_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China_Lake-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caltech's <a href="Gerald_Kron" title="Gerald Kron">Gerald Kron</a> developed instrumentation to evaluate the test drops, which were made by aircraft based at NOTS, Muroc and <a href="Wendover_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Wendover Army Air Field">Wendover Army Air Field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Getting the <a href="Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> to fall properly was quite difficult. One officer described it as:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">

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</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...a crazy bomb. It was built about like a streamlined brick, and to get [it] to fly reasonably well ballistically was quite a chore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The resolution of the problem involved extensive testing with various fin configurations. <a href="Commander" title="Commander">Commander</a> <a href="Chick_Hayward" class="mw-redirect" title="Chick Hayward">Chick Hayward</a> initially thought that test bombs dropped at NOTS would be easier to recover than those dropped on the sands at Wendover, but they proved to have considerable ability to penetrate the desert floor, and required no less digging out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218–219_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218–219-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The commander of <a href="Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a>, <a href="Captain_(United_States_O-6)" title="Captain (United States O-6)">Captain</a> <a href="Deak_Parsons" class="mw-redirect" title="Deak Parsons">Deak Parsons</a>, had four bomb assembly kits produced. These kits were fully contained facilities, which included a number of <a href="Quonset_hut" title="Quonset hut">Quonset huts</a> with air conditioning. Two were shipped to the Pacific island of <a href="Tinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinian">Tinian</a>, where the atomic bombs were assembled. One was kept as a spare at Wendover, and one was erected at Inyokern, where it was used to assemble the explosive but non-nuclear <a href="Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">pumpkin bombs</a> for testing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978219–220_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978219–220-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detonators">Detonators</h3></div>

<p>The design of the Fat Man required that a number of <a href="Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a> had to be detonated simultaneously. After learning from <a href="Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> that the Los Alamos Laboratory had encountered problems with the supply of the <a href="Exploding_bridgewire_detonator" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploding bridgewire detonator">exploding bridgewire detonators</a> required for this, Lauritsen found manufacturers in the Los Angeles area that could produce them. Alvarez ordered the detonators by the thousand. They were used in the bomb, but most were expended in various diagnostic tests required to verify that the detonators and the lenses worked perfectly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993302–303_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993302–303-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Responsibility for the development and testing of the critical detonators was shared between Lauritsen's group at Caltech and Robert Henderson's group at Los Alamos. By mid-1945, the object was to produce 1,000 detonators each week. Meeting this target proved challenging. Reliability was the key problem, with initial batches containing unacceptably high numbers of failures. In May 1945, a box of detonators manufactured by <a href="Raytheon" title="Raytheon">Raytheon</a> fell from a truck and tumbled down a mountain side, but were found to still be in working order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993321-322_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993321-322-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salt_Wells_Pilot_plant">Salt Wells Pilot plant</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></div>

<p>The explosive lenses required by the Fat Man had to be fabricated. A small explosive plant was established at Los Alamos known as Site S, as it was a former sawmill. Groves was appalled at the work practices and safety at Site S, and considered it only a matter of time before it blew up. On Parsons' recommendation, Groves decided to establish a pilot plant at NOTS, because Caltech had experience in building and operating pilot ordnance plants. He had some misgivings about this, because he thought that the Navy might err too far on the side of workplace safety.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978210–211_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978210–211-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Groves and Parsons met with Lauritsen and Bruce Sage, who had built the China Lake Pilot Plant where the rockets were made, and it was agreed that Caltech would build and operate the plant. A site was chosen in the Salt Wells Valley and work commenced on 80 buildings, 52 of them permanent, at a cost of $13 million. Groves wanted the plant working within 100 days. While Site S had sufficient capacity to make explosive components for one or two bombs, it was unlikely that it could meet the expected demand in the months to come. Complicating the construction program was that Los Alamos had not finalized what processes would be used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978211–213_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978211–213-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Equipping the <a href="Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a> involved its own challenges. Some facilities had to be fabricated for the purpose. Some items were hard to locate, while others were in short supply in the wartime economy. The Manhattan Project's overriding priority overcame this problem. In some cases, the Army had representatives at the factories where items were made who designated them for use by Project Camel. Groves felt that his fears about excessive safety were realized: reinforced concrete, blast proof doors and electrical shielding drove up costs. In the end, after 115 days, the first explosives were melted, mixed and poured on 25 July 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978214–217_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978214–217-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_war">After the war</h2></div><p>

After the <a href="Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, the <a href="United_States_Under_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Under Secretary of War">Under Secretary of War</a>, <a href="Robert_P._Patterson" title="Robert P. Patterson">Robert P. Patterson</a>, sent a <a href="Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegram">telegram</a> to "all the men and women employed on the Camel Project":</p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Today the whole world knows the secret which you have helped us keep for many months. I am pleased to be able to add that the warlords of Japan now know its effects better even than we ourselves. The atomic bomb which you have helped to develop with high devotion to patriotic duty is the most devastating military weapon that any country has ever been able to turn against its enemy. No one of you has worked on the entire project or known the whole story. Each of you has done his own job and kept his own secret, and so today I speak for a grateful nation when I say congratulations and thank you all. I hope you will continue to keep the secrets you have kept so well. The need for security and for continued effort is fully as great now as it ever was. We are proud of every one of you.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978220_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Production at Site S ceased in late 1945 due to the cold weather.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962626_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962626-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All work was then done at Salt Wells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan196959_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan196959-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plant was completed in January 1946, and all equipment was installed and working by May 1946. Work was initially dogged by an unacceptably large number of defects in the form of cracks or imperfections in the explosive blocks. The core of the problem was that the techniques used at Los Alamos did not scale to a production site, so different methods were required. Special instrumentation was devised by Caltech's <a href="Ira_Bowen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ira Bowen">Ira Bowen</a> to assess the quality of the explosive blocks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The temporary nature of the accommodation was no longer acceptable after the war,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC), which took over from the Manhattan Project on 1 January 1947,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962643_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962643-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> spent $3.252 million on 380 sets of family quarters, streets, electricity, sewers, mains water, and a small school, which was named after Groves, and opened in 1948. Improved techniques and facilities allowed the plant to triple its output in 1947. By 1949, the pilot plant employed over 700 people. The pilot plant helped design, equip and train workers for the new <a href="Burlington_AEC_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Burlington AEC Plant">Burlington AEC Plant</a>, which took over responsibility for manufacturing the explosive lenses. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Salt Wells Pilot Plant was closed in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008324_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008324-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.militarymuseum.org/NAFInyokern.html">"Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake"</a>. The California State Military Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962315–316_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 315–316.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978208_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, p. 208.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell200542-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell200542_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2005">Campbell 2005</a>, p. 42.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978175–176-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978175–176_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 175–176.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515105500/http://www.navair.navy.mil/nawcwd/weather/chinalake/fcstrhndbk/sect1.htm">"China lake Forecasters' Handbook – Section 1 Basic Description"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navair.navy.mil/nawcwd/weather/chinalake/fcstrhndbk/sect1.htm">the original</a> on 15 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, p. 218.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218–219-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978218–219_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 218–219.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978219–220-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978219–220_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 219–220.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993302–303-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993302–303_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993">Hoddeson et al. 1993</a>, pp. 302–303.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993321-322-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993321-322_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993">Hoddeson et al. 1993</a>, p. 321-322.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978210–211-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978210–211_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 210–211.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978211–213-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978211–213_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 211–213.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978214–217-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978214–217_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 214–217.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978220-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978220_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, p. 220.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962626-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962626_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 626.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan196959-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan196959_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969">Hewlett & Duncan 1969</a>, p. 59.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerrard-GoughChristman1978306–310_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978">Gerrard-Gough & Christman 1978</a>, pp. 306–310.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008312–313_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBabcock2008">Babcock 2008</a>, pp. 312–313.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962643-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962643_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 643.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008324-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabcock2008324_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBabcock2008">Babcock 2008</a>, p. 324.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBabcock2008" class="citation book cs1">Babcock, Elizabeth (2008). <i>Magnificent Mavericks: Transition of the Naval Ordnance Test Station from Rocket Station to Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation Center, 1948–58</i>. Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center and the Naval Air Systems Command. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780945274568</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186348197">186348197</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2005" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Richard H. (2005). <i>The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs</i>. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7864-2139-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/58554961">58554961</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGerrard-GoughChristman1978" class="citation book cs1">Gerrard-Gough, J. D.; Christman, Albert B. (1978). <i>The Grand Experiment at Inyokern</i>. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/251693280">251693280</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969" class="citation book cs1">Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). <i>Atomic Shield, 1947–1952</i>. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-520-07187-5</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3717478">3717478</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse"><i>Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</i></a></span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Manhattan_Project245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li>

<li><a href="Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li>

<li><a href="P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li>

<li><a href="James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li>

<li><a href="Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li>

<li><a href="Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li>

<li><a href="James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li>

<li><a href="Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li>

<li><a href="J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li>

<li><a href="Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li>

<li><a href="William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li>

<li><a href="William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li>

<li><a href="Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li>

<li><a href="Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li>

<li><a href="Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li>

<li><a href="Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li>

<li><a href="John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li>

<li><a href="Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li>

<li><a href="Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li>

<li><a href="Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li>

<li><a href="Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li>

<li><a href="Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li>

<li><a href="George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li>

<li><a href="Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li>

<li><a href="Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li>

<li><a href="Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li>

<li><a href="Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li>

<li><a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li>

<li><a href="Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li>

<li><a href="Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li>

<li><a href="Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li>

<li><a href="509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li>

<li><a href="Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li>

<li><a href="B_Reactor" title="B Reactor">B Reactor</a></li>

<li><a href="British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Pile-3" title="Chicago Pile-3">Chicago Pile-3</a></li>

<li><a href="Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li>

<li><a href="Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li>

<li><a href="Manhattan_Project_feed_materials_program" title="Manhattan Project feed materials program">Feed materials</a></li>

<li><a href="Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li>

<li><a href="Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li>

<li><a href="Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li>

<li><a href="Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li>

<li><a href="Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li>

<li><a href="X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li>

<li><a href="Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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